THE WORLD
Establishment of the field
The advent of world history as a distinct academic field of study can be traced to 1980s,
[1] and was heralded by the creation of the World History Association and graduate programs at a handful of universities. Over the next decades scholarly publications, professional and academic organizations, and graduate programs in world history proliferated. World History has often displaced Western Civilization in the required curriculum of American high schools and universities, and is supported by new textbooks with a world history approach.
- Organizations
- The H-World discussion list[2] serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.
- World History Association (WHA) - Established in the 1980s, the WHA is predominantly an American phenomenon.[4]
History
Pre-modern
The study of world history, as distinct from national history, has existed in many world cultures. However, early forms of world history were not truly global, and were limited to only the regions known by historian.
In
Ancient China, Chinese world history, that of China and the surrounding people of
East Asia, was based on the
dynastic cycle articulated by
Sima Qian in circa 100 BC. Sima Qian's model is based on the
Mandate of Heaven. Rulers rise when they united China, then are overthrown when a ruling dynasty became corrupt.
[5] Each new dynasty begins virtuous and strong, but then decays, provoking the transfer of Heaven's mandate to a new ruler. The test of virtue in a new dynasty is success in being obeyed by China and neighboring barbarians. After 2000 years Sima Qian's model still dominates scholarship, although the
dynastic cycle is no longer used for modern Chinese history.
[6]
In
Ancient Greece,
Herodotus (5th century BC), as founder of Greek historiography.,
[7] presents insightful and lively discussions of the customs, geography, and history of Mediterranean peoples, particularly the Egyptians. However, his great rival
Thucydides promptly discarded Herodotus's all-embracing approach to history, offering instead a more precise, sharply focused monograph, dealing not with vast empires over the centuries but with 27 years of war between Athens and Sparta. In Rome, the vast, patriotic history of Rome by Livy (59 BC-17 AD) approximated Herodotean inclusiveness;
[8] Polybius (c.200-c.118 BC) aspired to combine the logical rigor of Thucydides with the scope of Herodotus.
[9]
In Central Asia,
The Secret History of Mongols is regarded as the single significant native Mongolian account of Genghis Khan. The Secret History is regarded as a piece of classic literature in both Mongolia and the rest of the world.
In the Middle East,
Ala'iddin Ata-Malik Juvayni (1226–1283) was a Persian historian who wrote an account of the Mongol Empire entitled Ta' rīkh-i jahān-gushā (History of the World Conqueror).
[10] The standard edition of Juvayni is published under the title Ta' rīkh-i jahān-gushā, ed. Mirza Muhammad Qazwini, 3 vol, Gibb Memorial Series 16 (Leiden and London, 1912–37). An English translation by John Andrew Boyle "The History of the World-Conqueror" was republished in 1997.
Rashīd al-Dīn Fadhl-allāh Hamadānī (1247–1318), was a Persian physician of Jewish origin, polymathic writer and historian, who wrote an enormous Islamic history, the Jami al-Tawarikh, in the Persian language, often considered a landmark in intercultural historiography and a key document on the Ilkhanids (13th and 14th century).
[11] His encyclopedic knowledge of a wide range of cultures from Mongolia to China to the Steppes of Central Eurasia to Persia, the Arab lands, and Europe, provide the most direct access to information on the late Mongol era. His descriptions also highlight the manner in which the Mongol Empire and its emphasis on trade resulted in an atmosphere of cultural and religious exchange and intellectual ferment, resulting in the transmission of a host of ideas from East to West and vice versa.
One Arab scholar,
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1409) broke with traditionalism and offered a model of historical change in
Muqaddimah, an exposition of the methodology of scientific history. Ibn Khaldun focused on the reasons for the rise and fall of civilization, arguing that the causes of change are to be sought in the economic and social structure of society. His work was largely ignored in the Muslim world.
[12] Otherwise the Muslim, Chinese and Indian intellectuals held fast to a religious traditionalism, leaving them unprepared to advise national leaders on how to confront the European intrusion into Asia after 1500.
Early modern
During the
Renaissance in Europe, history was written about states or nations. The study of history changed during the
Enlightenment and
Romanticism.
Voltaire described the history of certain ages that he considered important, rather than describing events in chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called
philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history (
historia).
Giambattista Vico (1668–1744) in Italy wrote
Scienza nuova seconda (The New Science) in 1725, which argued history as the expression of human will and deeds. He thought that men are historical entities and that human nature changes over time. Each epoch should be seen as a whole in which all aspects of culture—art, religion, philosophy, politics, and economics—are interrelated (a point developed later by
Oswald Spengler). Vico showed that myth, poetry, and art are entry points to discovering the true spirit of a culture. Vico outlined a conception of historical development in which great cultures, like Rome, undergo cycles of growth and decline. His ideas were out of fashion during the
Enlightenment, but influenced the Romantic historians after 1800.
A major theoretical foundation for world history was given by German philosopher
G. W. F. Hegel, who saw the modern Prussian state as the highest stage of world development.
Contemporary
World history became a popular genre in the 20th century with
universal history.
In the 1920s several best-sellers dealt with the history of the world, including surveys
The Story of Mankind (1921) by
Hendrik Willem van Loon and
The Outline of History (1918) by
H.G. Wells.
Influential writers who have reached wide audiences include
H. G. Wells,
Oswald Spengler,
Arnold J. Toynbee,
Pitirim Sorokin,
Christopher Dawson,
[13] and
Lewis Mumford. Scholars working the field include
Eric Voegelin,
[14] William H. McNeill and
Michael Mann.
[15]
Spengler's Decline of the West (2 vol 1919–1922) compared nine organic cultures: Egyptian (3400 BC-1200 BC), Indian (1500 BC-1100 BC), Chinese (1300 BC-AD 200), Classical (1100 BC-400 BC), Byzantine (AD 300–1100), Aztec (AD 1300–1500), Arabian (AD 300–1250), Mayan (AD 600–960), and Western (AD 900–1900). His book was a smashing success among intellectuals worldwide as it predicted the disintegration of European and American civilization after a violent "age of Caesarism," arguing by detailed analogies with other civilizations. It deepened the post-World War I pessimism in Europe, and was warmly received by intellectuals in China, India and Latin America who hoped his predictions of the collapse of European empires would soon come true.
[16]
In 1936–1954,
Toynbee's ten-volume
A Study of History came out in three separate installments. He followed Spengler in taking a comparative topical approach to independent civilizations. Toynbee said they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay. Toynbee rejected Spengler's biological model of civilizations as organisms with a typical life span of 1,000 years. Like
Sima Qian, Toynbee explained decline as due to their moral failure. Many readers rejoiced in his implication (in vols. 1–6) that only a return to some form of Catholicism could halt the breakdown of western civilization which began with the Reformation. Volumes 7–10, published in 1954, abandoned the religious message, and his popular audience slipped away, while scholars gleefully picked apart his mistakes.,
[17]
McNeill wrote
The Rise of the West (1965) to improve upon Toynbee by showing how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary. McNeill took a broad approach organized around the interactions of peoples across the globe. Such interactions have become both more numerous and more continual and substantial in recent times. Before about 1500, the network of communication between cultures was that of Eurasia. The term for these areas of interaction differ from one world historian to another and include
world-system and
ecumene. Whatever it is called, the importance of these intercultural contacts has begun to be recognized by many scholars.
[18]
History education
United States
In college curricula of the United States, world history became a popular replacement for courses on
Western Civilization, beginning in the 1970s. Professors
Patrick Manning, previously of Northeastern University and now at the University of Pittsburgh's World History Center; and
Ross E. Dunn at San Diego State are leaders in promoting innovative teaching methods.
[19]
Recent themes
In recent years, the relationship between African and world history has shifted rapidly from one of antipathy to one of engagement and synthesis. Reynolds (2007) surveys the relationship between African and world histories, with an emphasis on the tension between the area studies paradigm and the growing world-history emphasis on connections and exchange across regional boundaries. A closer examination of recent exchanges and debates over the merits of this exchange is also featured. Reynolds sees the relationship between African and world history as a measure of the changing nature of historical inquiry over the past century.
[20]
Histories have traditionally been written from the perspective of national governments or of geographically based communities. However, it is also possible to see world history as the story of a single human civilization developing new institutions and forms of expression over successive periods of time. World history can thus be a “creation story” to tell how the world of human society developed. In this mode, the story would include not only political and diplomatic history but also events relating to religion, commerce, education, and entertainment. Technologies of communication would have an important role in this history.
[21]
World historians
- Christopher Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World: Global Connections and Comparisons, 1780–1914 (London, 2004)
- Philip D. Curtin (1922-2009), The World and the West: The European Challenge and the Overseas Response in the Age of Empire. (2000) 308 pp. ISBN 978-0-521-77135-1. online review
- Christopher Dawson. (1889-1970) Religion and the Rise of Western Culture(1950) excerpt and text search
- Francis Fukuyama (1952– ) The End of History and the Last Man (1992)[22]
- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1830), philosopher of world history[23]
- William McGaughey, Five Epochs of Civilization (2000).[24]
- William H. McNeill (born 1917);[25] see especially The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (1963)
- McNeill, Robert, and William H. McNeill. The Human Web: A Bird's-Eye View of World History (2003) excerpt and text search
- Patrick Manning, Navigating World History: Historians Create a Global Past (2003)[26]
- Carroll Quigley (1910-1977), The Evolution of Civilizations (1961), Tragedy and Hope: A History of the World in Our Time (1966), Weapons Systems and Political Stability: A History (1983)
- Pitirim Sorokin (1889–1968), Russian-American macrosociology; Social and Cultural Dynamics (4 vol., 1937–41)[27]
- Oswald Spengler (1880-1936), German; Decline of the West (1918–22) vol 1 online; vol 2 online; excerpt and text search, abridged edition
- Peter Stearns, USA; World History in Brief: Major Patterns of Change and Continuity, 7th ed. (2009); Encyclopedia of World History, 6th ed. (200pp)
- Luc-Normand Tellier, Canadian; Urban World History, PUQ, (2009), 650 pages; online edition
- Arnold J. Toynbee, British; A Study of History (1934–61);[28] see especially A Study of History.
- Eric Voegelin (1901–1985) Order and History (1956–85)[29]
- Immanuel Wallerstein, world systems; leftist but not Marxist
- Will Durant (1885-1981) and Ariel Durant (1898-1981); Story of Civilization(1935-1975).
Bibliography
- Adas, Michael. Essays on Twentieth-Century History (2010); historiographic essays on world history conceptualizing the "long" 20th century, from the 1870s to the early 2000s.
- Bentley, Jerry H. Shapes of World History in Twentieth Century Scholarship. Essays on Global and Comparative History Series. (1996)
- Costello, Paul. World Historians and Their Goals: Twentieth-Century Answers to Modernism (1993).
- Curtin, Philip D. "Depth, Span, and Relevance," The American Historical Review, Vol. 89, No. 1 (Feb., 1984), pp. 1–9 in JSTOR
- Dunn, Ross E., ed. The New World History: A Teacher's Companion. (2000). 607pp. ISBN 978-0-312-18327-1 online review
- Frye, Northrop. "Spengler Revisited" in Northrop Frye on modern culture (2003), pp 297–382, first published 1974; online
- Gombrich, Ernst "A Little History of the World" (1936 & 1995)
- Hughes, H. Stuart. Oswald Spengler (1952).
- Hughes-Warrington, Marnie. Palgrave Advances in World Histories (2005), 256pp, articles by scholars
- Lang, Michael. "Globalization and Global History in Toynbee," Journal of World History 22#4 Dec. 2011 pp. 747-783 in project MUSE
- McInnes, Neil. "The Great Doomsayer: Oswald Spengler Reconsidered." National Interest 1997 (48): 65–76. Issn: 0884-9382 Fulltext: Ebsco
- McNeill, William H. "The Changing Shape of World History." History and Theory 1995 34(2): 8–26. Issn: 0018-2656 in JSTOR
- McNeill, William H., Jerry H. Bentley, and David Christian, eds. Berkshire Encyclopedia Of World History (5 vol 2005)
- Manning, Patrick. Navigating World History: Historians Create a Global Past (2003), an important guide to the entire field excerpt and text search; online review
- Mazlish, Bruce. "Comparing Global History to World History," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Winter, 1998), pp. 385–395 in JSTOR
- National Center for History in the Schools at UCLA. World History: The Big Eras, A Compact History of Humankind (2009), 96pp
- Neiberg, Michael S. Warfare in World History (2001) online edition
- O'Brien, Patrick K., ed. Atlas of World History. (2002)
- Patel, Klaus Kiran: Transnational History, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History(2011) retrieved: November 11, 2011.
- Richards, Michael D. Revolutions in World History (2003) online edition
- Roberts, J. M., The New Penguin History of the World (2007)
- Roupp, Heidi, ed. Teaching World History: A Resource Book. (1997), 274pp; online edition
- Smil, Vaclav. Energy in World History (1994) online edition
- Stearns, Peter N. The Industrial Revolution in World History (1998) online edition
- Szulc, Tad. Then and Now: How the World Has Changed since W.W. II. First ed. New York: W. Morrow & Co. (1990). 515 p. ISBN 0-688-07558-4
- Tellier, Luc-Normand. Urban World History (2009), PUQ, 650 pages; online edition
- Watts, Sheldon. Disease and Medicine in World History (2003) online edition
- Weech, William Nassau. "History of the World" (1944)
